Abraham Lincoln: Biography of The 16th U.S. President (2024)

Abraham Lincoln’s biography presents a fascinating life story of a man who rose from humble beginnings to become the 16th President of the United States. Born in a log cabin in 1809, Lincoln’s early years were marked by hard work and self-education. His political career began in Illinois, eventually leading him to the presidency during one of the nation’s most tumultuous periods. Lincoln’s leadership during the Civil War and his efforts to abolish slavery remain pivotal chapters in his life story.

Family and Childhood

Early Life

Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, emerging as the second child to Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks Lincoln in a rustic log cabin on Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville, Kentucky. He was a direct descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk, to Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1638. His ancestors then moved westward through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincoln’s lineage also included the Harrison family of Virginia; his namesake grandfather, Captain Abraham Lincoln, relocated the family from Virginia to Kentucky. The captain tragically lost his life in an Indian raid in 1786, an event witnessed by his children, including Thomas, Lincoln’s father.

Thomas Lincoln held various jobs across Kentucky and Tennessee before the family eventually settled in Hardin County, Kentucky, in the early 1800s. Lincoln spent his early years in Spencer County, Indiana, where the family moved when he was seven. His mother, Nancy, presumed to be the daughter of Lucy Hanks, had married Thomas in Washington County on June 12, 1806, and the couple relocated to Elizabethtown, Kentucky. Together, they had three children: Sarah, Abraham, and Thomas, who died in infancy.

Sir, my concern is not whether God is on our side; my greatest concern is to be on God’s side, for God is always right.

Abraham Lincoln

The Lincolns faced persistent land title disputes in Kentucky, losing all but 200 acres of their property. In search of more secure land holdings, they moved to Indiana in 1816, settling in Hurricane Township, Perry County—a dense, unbroken forest. This relocation coincided with Indiana’s admission to the Union as a free state. The decision to move was influenced by the avoidance of slavery and the ongoing issues with land titles in Kentucky.

In these new surroundings, Thomas Lincoln worked as a farmer, cabinetmaker, and carpenter, engaging in various community roles such as jury service, estate appraisal, and county patrols. He and Nancy were active members of the Separate Baptists church, which opposed alcohol, dancing, and slavery. Through determination and perseverance, Thomas secured a clear title to 80 acres in Indiana by 1827, creating a stable foundation for his family in what became known as the Little Pigeon Creek Community.

Tragic Loss

On October 5, 1818, Nancy Lincoln succumbed to milk sickness, leaving behind her family, including her 11-year-old daughter Sarah, who cared for her father Thomas, her nine-year-old brother Abraham, and Nancy’s 19-year-old orphan cousin Dennis Hanks. Tragically, Sarah also passed away on January 20, 1828, during childbirth, leaving Abraham deeply saddened.

Thomas Lincoln remarried on December 2, 1819, to Sarah Bush Johnston, a widow from Elizabethtown, Kentucky, who brought three children into the marriage. Abraham formed a strong bond with his stepmother, whom he affectionately called “Mother.” Despite criticisms from Dennis Hanks, who labeled him lazy for his preference for “reading—scribbling—writing—ciphering—writing poetry”¹ over manual labor, his stepmother recognized his love for reading and acknowledged that physical labor was not his liking.

Education, Labor, and Independence

Abraham Lincoln, predominantly self-taught, received his early education from itinerant teachers with only brief periods of formal schooling in Kentucky. Here, he learned to read, though writing skills may not have been a part of his early education. By the time he was 15, living in Indiana, Lincoln had attended school sporadically, totaling less than 12 months due to farm duties. Despite these interruptions, he developed a strong passion for reading, often engaging with texts like the King James Bible, Aesop’s Fables, John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress, Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe, and The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin. His commitment to learning persisted throughout his life, earning him honorary degrees, including a Doctor of Laws from Columbia University in June 1861.

As a teenager, Lincoln became essential to his family’s farming operations, with his father, Thomas, relying heavily on him for various agricultural tasks. Lincoln’s physical prowess was notable; he was skilled with an ax, a formidable wrestler, and trained in the rigorous catch-as-catch-can style. By age 21, he had earned the title of county wrestling champion and was known for his strength and courage, particularly after a notable victory over a group leader known as the Clary’s Grove boys.

In March 1830, concerned about the threat of milk sickness, Lincoln’s family, including Abraham, moved to Illinois, a state that prohibited slavery. This relocation began a growing distance between Abraham and his father, partly due to Thomas’s disinterest in education. Abraham decided to forge his own path in 1831 as his family prepared to establish a new homestead in Coles County, Illinois. He settled in New Salem, Illinois, where he lived for six years. During this period, he and some friends transported goods, including live hogs, to New Orleans, Louisiana, by flatboat. It was on this journey that he encountered the harsh realities of slavery for the first time.

Marriage, Children, and Family

Abraham Lincoln’s personal life was marked by deep relationships and profound losses that profoundly affected him. His first notable romantic interest was Ann Rutledge, whom he met in New Salem. Although some later testimonies questioned the depth of their relationship, Lincoln was devastated by Rutledge’s death from typhoid fever on August 25, 1835. He reportedly struggled with the thought of her grave being exposed to the elements, leading to a severe bout of depression.
In the late 1830s, Lincoln formed a relationship with Mary Owens from Kentucky. After agreeing to a potential match in 1836, Owens visited New Salem in November of that year, but mutual second thoughts led to the end of their courtship. Lincoln wrote to Owens in 1837, expressing his understanding of whether she chose to end the relationship, to which she did not respond.

Lincoln’s life took a significant turn when he met Mary Todd in Springfield, Illinois, in 1839. The daughter of a wealthy lawyer and businessman, Mary Todd became engaged to Lincoln the following year. Their initial wedding date in 1841 was abruptly called off when Lincoln failed to appear, but they reconciled and married on November 4, 1842, in her sister’s Springfield home. In 1844, they purchased a home in Springfield, close to Lincoln’s law office. Mary managed their home with the help of servants, while Lincoln pursued his burgeoning law and political career.

The Lincolns had four sons: Robert Todd Lincoln, born in 1843, who was the only child to reach adulthood; Edward Baker Lincoln, born in 1846, who died of tuberculosis in 1850; William “Willie” Lincoln, born in 1850, who died of a fever in the White House in 1862; and Thomas “Tad” Lincoln, born in 1853, who outlived his father but died of heart failure in 1871 at age 18.

Lincoln was known for his affection for children, though he often brought them to his law office, much to the chagrin of his law partner William H. Herndon. Herndon noted that Lincoln was sometimes so engrossed in his work that he did not notice his children’s mischievous behavior, which could be a source of frustration.
The deaths of his sons, Eddie and Willie, deeply impacted Lincoln and his wife. Lincoln grappled with what was described as “melancholy,” now recognized as clinical depression.² Mary, too, faced immense challenges, struggling with the loss of her husband and sons. In 1875, amidst her ongoing grief, her son Robert had her committed to an asylum, adding yet another layer of tragedy to the Lincoln family’s storied history.

Early Career: From Storekeeper to Politician

Abraham Lincoln’s early career was a blend of commerce and military service. Between 1831 and 1832, he worked at a general store in New Salem, Illinois. In 1832, he decided to run for the Illinois House of Representatives. However, his campaign was temporarily halted when he joined the Illinois Militia as a captain during the Black Hawk War.

Upon his return from the war, Lincoln initially thought about becoming a blacksmith but instead teamed up with William Berry, a 21-year-old, to purchase a general store on credit. To expand their business, Berry secured bartending licenses for both of them and in 1833, they began operating a tavern.

In their tavern, Lincoln and Berry sold alcoholic drinks for 12 cents a pint and also offered food, including takeout dinners. Unfortunately, Berry’s struggle with alcoholism forced Lincoln to manage the operations primarily by himself. Despite a booming economy, their business floundered, eventually pushing Lincoln to sell his share.

After his militia service, Lincoln’s re-entry into politics was memorable. During a campaign speech, he once defended a supporter from an attacker, showcasing his physical strength and direct action. His campaign focused on improvements to the Sangamon River’s navigation, but despite his ability to attract crowds, his lack of formal education, influential allies, and financial resources contributed to his loss in the election. He finished eighth out of thirteen candidates, although he did win 277 of the 300 votes from the New Salem precinct.

Lincoln also took on roles as New Salem’s postmaster and later as county surveyor. His passion for learning continued as he pursued a legal career, choosing an unconventional path by self-studying rather than working under an established lawyer. He borrowed legal books from John Todd Stuart and Thomas Drummond and read extensively, famously stating, “I studied with nobody.”³

1834–1842: Illinois State Legislature

Abraham Lincoln’s journey in the Illinois state legislature spanned from 1834 to 1842, marking significant developments in his political and legal career. In his second campaign for state representative in 1834, Lincoln ran as a Whig. He secured a victory against a well-established Whig opponent. This win ushered him into four terms in the Illinois House of Representatives representing Sangamon County. During his tenure, he was a staunch advocate for the construction of the Illinois and Michigan Canal and even served as a Canal Commissioner.

Lincoln’s legislative efforts included voting to broaden voting rights from solely white landowners to all white males. He maintained a “free soil” position that opposed both slavery and its outright abolition, stating in 1837 that the institution of slavery was built on injustice and poor policy. Yet, he believed promoting abolition could exacerbate its problems rather than alleviate them. He supported Henry Clay’s endorsem*nt of the American Colonization Society, which aimed to end slavery and relocate formerly enslaved people to Liberia gradually.

In 1836, Lincoln was officially admitted to the Illinois Bar and subsequently moved to Springfield to practice law with John T. Stuart, who was related to Mary Todd. As a lawyer, Lincoln became known for his prowess in cross-examinations and compelling closing arguments. He initially partnered with Stephen T. Logan. Later, in 1844, he started a practice with William Herndon, described as “a studious young man.”

On January 27, 1838, at 28 years old, Lincoln delivered a significant speech at the Lyceum in Springfield, reflecting on the threats to American institutions not from external forces but from within. He stated, “It cannot come from abroad. If destruction is our lot, we must ourselves be its author and finisher.”⁴ This speech came after the murder of newspaper editor Elijah Parish Lovejoy in Alton, Illinois, which profoundly influenced his views. Additionally, the brutal lynching of Francis McIntosh, an innocent black man in St. Louis in 1836, profoundly impacted Lincoln, setting off a series of reflections that would later influence his decision to run for President.

1847–1849: U.S. House of Representatives

During his term in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1847 to 1849, Abraham Lincoln, then in his late thirties, firmly aligned himself with the Whig party’s ideologies, much like his political idol, Henry Clay. This alignment was evident in his support for economic modernization, which included advocating for enhanced banking systems, protective tariffs to fund infrastructure such as railroads, and promoting urban development.

Lincoln initially sought to represent Illinois’s 7th district in the House in 1843 but was defeated by John J. Hardin. However, Lincoln strategically limited Hardin to a single term and successfully secured the Whig nomination for himself in 1846. Upon election, he became the sole Whig representative from Illinois. True to his commitment, Lincoln was active in Congress, participating in the vast majority of votes and adhering closely to the Whig Party’s policies.

He served on the Committee on Post Office and Post Roads and the Committee on Expenditures in the War Department. In collaboration with Joshua R. Giddings, Lincoln proposed a bill to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia. This legislation included provisions for compensating enslavers, enforcing laws to capture fugitive enslaved people, and stipulating that a popular vote should decide the abolition. Despite his efforts, Lincoln withdrew the bill after failing to garner sufficient support from his fellow Whigs.

Foreign and Military Policy Views

Abraham Lincoln’s political views were extreme on foreign and military policy issues. He famously criticized the Mexican-American War, attributing it to President James K. Polk’s desire for “military glory — that attractive rainbow that rises in showers of blood.” He was a supporter of the Wilmot Proviso, an unsuccessful initiative aimed at banning slavery in any territories acquired from Mexico.

His introduction of the Spot Resolutions further highlighted Lincoln’s opposition to President Polk. The conflict had escalated following the killing of American soldiers by Mexican forces in a disputed area. President Polk claimed that Mexican troops had “invaded our territory and shed the blood of our fellow-citizens on our own soil.”⁵ In response, Lincoln challenged Polk to prove to Congress that the altercation occurred on American soil by identifying the precise location where the blood was shed. The resolution did not gain traction in Congress or with the public, resulting in a loss of political support for Lincoln within his district, earning him the mocking nickname “spotty Lincoln” from one Illinois newspaper. He later regretted some of his more aggressive critiques, particularly regarding presidential war powers.

Committed to serving only one term in the House as he had pledged in 1846, Lincoln looked toward the future of his political career. Recognizing that Henry Clay was unlikely to secure the presidency, he supported General Zachary Taylor for the Whig nomination in the 1848 presidential election, which Taylor ultimately won. Lincoln hoped this might lead to his appointment as Commissioner of the United States General Land Office, though this hope went unfulfilled. Instead, the administration offered him positions as either the secretary or governor of the Oregon Territory—a Democratic bastion. Accepting this role would have sidetracked his burgeoning legal and political career in Illinois, so he declined and returned to law practice.

Prairie Lawyer

As a lawyer in Springfield, Abraham Lincoln managed a diverse range of cases typical for a “prairie lawyer.” Over 16 years, he consistently traveled to county seats for 10-week stints to practice in Midstate county courts. His legal work often involved transportation issues, a key sector during America’s western expansion. Initially, as a riverboat man, Lincoln usually represented interests aligned with river navigation. Still, he shifted as required, representing clients from both sides of transportation disputes.

A notable case in Lincoln’s legal career was Hurd v. Rock Island Bridge Company, in which he represented a bridge company against a riverboat firm in a collision that sank a canal boat. In 1849, Lincoln even secured a patent for a flotation device to aid boats in shallow waters, marking him as the only U.S. president to hold a patent.

In Illinois’s highest court, Lincoln argued 175 cases, serving as sole counsel in 51, winning 31. His prominent clients included the Illinois Central Railroad, earning him the “Honest Abe” moniker due to his reputable legal practices.

One of Lincoln’s most famous legal defenses occurred during the 1858 trial of William “Duff” Armstrong, accused of murdering James Preston Metzker. Lincoln discredited an eyewitness by using a Farmer’s Almanac to prove the improbability of seeing the crime by moonlight, as claimed. Armstrong was acquitted, showcasing Lincoln’s shrewd legal acumen.

In the lead-up to his presidential campaign, Lincoln boosted his legal profile in an 1859 murder defense. He represented Simeon Quinn “Peachy” Harrison, accused of murdering Greek Crafton, who admitted on his deathbed to provoking the fight. Lincoln vehemently challenged a judge’s decision to dismiss this confession as hearsay, arguing it was a valid dying declaration. Despite political differences and to the surprise of many, the judge reversed his decision, allowing the confession into evidence, which led to Harrison’s acquittal. This case highlighted Lincoln’s legal skill and underlined his ability to sway judicial decisions, even under politically charged circ*mstances.

1854–1860: Republican Politics

Political Resurgence and the Birth of the Republican Party

The Compromise of 1850, aimed at resolving disputes over the status of slavery in new territories, failed to calm tensions between the slaveholding South and the free North. In an 1852 eulogy for Henry Clay, Lincoln praised Clay’s efforts for gradual emancipation and his balanced stance on slavery. However, the debate flared anew with the Kansas-Nebraska Act, proposed by Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas in May 1854. This act introduced the concept of popular sovereignty, allowing residents of new territories to decide on slavery’s legality. This legislation was alarming to many in the North who were opposed to the expansion of slavery and passed Congress narrowly.

Lincoln’s explicit opposition to the Kansas-Nebraska Act came during his Peoria Speech in October 1854. He expressed his disdain for the act, criticizing it as an indirect support for the spread of slavery, which he opposed because of its inherent injustice and its negative impact on America’s international reputation. This speech marked his emphatic return to the political arena.

You cannot escape the responsibility of tomorrow by evading it today.

Abraham Lincoln

The internal divisions within the Whig Party, exacerbated by the Kansas-Nebraska Act, led to its eventual dissolution. Lincoln, reflecting on his political identity in 1855, noted that while he identified as a Whig, the shifting political landscape and the rise of the nativist Know Nothing movement made this affiliation increasingly tenuous. The Republican Party formed during this period, drawing members from the anti-slavery segments of the Whigs, Free Soil Party, Liberty Party, and anti-slavery Democrats.

In 1854, Lincoln won an election to the Illinois legislature. Still, he chose not to serve, focusing instead on a U.S. Senate bid. State legislatures elected senators at the time. Lincoln led the initial rounds of voting but did not secure a majority. In a strategic move, he withdrew in favor of Lyman Trumbull, an anti-slavery Democrat who had previously garnered minimal support. This decision allowed Lincoln’s Whig backers to ally with Trumbull’s supporters, leading to Trumbull’s victory over the Democratic candidate Joel Aldrich Matteson, showcasing Lincoln’s pragmatic political maneuvers and dedication to anti-slavery principles.

1856 Campaign

During the volatile political landscape of 1856, with ongoing unrest in Kansas and widespread opposition to the Kansas-Nebraska Act in the North, Abraham Lincoln aligned himself with the burgeoning Republican movement. He greatly impacted the Bloomington Convention and was crucial in founding the Illinois Republican Party. This gathering solidified a platform that advocated for Congressional oversight of slavery in the territories and supported Kansas’s entry into the Union as a free state. Lincoln’s compelling closing speech at this event underscored his commitment to the Union’s preservation.

In June of the same year, at the Republican National Convention, Lincoln was considered for the vice-presidential slot. Still, he ultimately supported the ticket of John C. Frémont and William Dayton as they campaigned across Illinois. The Democratic Party nominated James Buchanan, and the Know-Nothings chose Millard Fillmore. Buchanan emerged victorious in the presidential race. Meanwhile, the Republicans celebrated a local victory with William Henry Bissell becoming Governor of Illinois, further cementing Lincoln’s status as a key Republican leader in his state.

Dred Scott v. Sandford

In the landmark case Dred Scott v. Sandford in 1857, Dred Scott, an enslaved person who had been taken from a slave state to a territory free under the Missouri Compromise, sued for his freedom upon his return to the slave state. The Supreme Court, led by Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, issued a ruling that not only denied Scott his freedom but also declared that black people were not citizens and thus could not claim any rights under the Constitution. Additionally, the decision declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional, asserting it infringed upon enslavers’ rights to their “property.”

This ruling was hoped by many Democrats to settle the contentious issue of slavery in the territories; however, it instead ignited even greater outrage across the North. Abraham Lincoln vehemently criticized the decision, labeling it as a result of a Democratic conspiracy to strengthen the Slave Power. He contended that the decision directly contradicted the principles of the Declaration of Independence. Lincoln emphasized that while the founding fathers did not view all men as equal in all respects, they did affirm that all men shared certain essential rights, including life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

Lincoln–Douglas Debates and Cooper Union Speech

In 1858, Abraham Lincoln’s political career was gaining momentum. He sought to unseat Senator Stephen Douglas in a race that would garner national attention. The Republican Party, still in its infancy, saw Lincoln as a strong candidate due to his Whig background and vigorous campaigning for Lyman Trumbull in 1856. This was particularly relevant as some eastern Republicans favored Douglas for his stance against the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution, causing friction with Illinois Republicans who disapproved of Eastern interference.

Lincoln seized the nomination at Illinois’s first Republican convention with minimal opposition. His acceptance led to the historic House Divided Speech, in which he famously quoted Mark 3:25, stating, “A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure, permanently half slave and half free.” This speech vividly highlighted the risks of disunion. Douglas, acknowledging Lincoln’s formidable presence, remarked that defeating him would be a substantial challenge.

The ensuing debates between Lincoln and Douglas were monumental, drawing huge crowds and national interest. Lincoln argued that Douglas’s policies would spread slavery nationwide. At the same time, Douglas maintained that local territories should decide slavery’s legality through popular sovereignty, despite the Supreme Court’s pro-slavery stance in the Dred Scott decision.

Although the Republicans won more popular votes, the Democrats secured more legislative seats, and Douglas retained his Senate seat. However, the debates significantly raised Lincoln’s profile, leading to speculation about his presidential viability. He enhanced this visibility by purchasing the Illinois Staats-Anzeiger. This German-language newspaper helped garner support from the state’s German-American population.

In early 1860, Lincoln stated his openness to a presidential nomination. His efforts culminated in a pivotal speech at New York’s Cooper Union, where he argued against popular sovereignty and the restriction of slavery, referencing the moral foundations set by the Founding Fathers. Despite his unpolished appearance, his profound arguments impressed the audience, significantly boosting his political standing. Historian David Herbert Donald noted that Lincoln’s Cooper Union appearance was strategically brilliant, enhancing his reputation in a state loyal to one of his main rivals, William Seward. Lincoln subtly indicated his growing ambition, hinting at his readiness for the presidency by saying, “The taste is in my mouth a little.”

1860 United States Presidential Election

In 1860, Abraham Lincoln ascended to the presidency amidst a sharply divided national landscape over slavery. The pivotal year began with the Illinois Republican State Convention on Decatur, May 9-10. Lincoln’s skilled campaign team, including David Davis, Norman Judd, Leonard Swett, and Jesse DuBois, secured his first significant endorsem*nt. Capitalizing on Lincoln’s image as “The Rail Candidate,” his team highlighted his origins and robust physical stature, portraying him as nearly six feet four inches tall, lean, with a dark complexion and coarse black hair.

Lincoln secured the Republican nomination at the National Convention in Chicago on May 18, outpacing contenders such as William Seward and Salmon P. Chase. Hannibal Hamlin of Maine was selected as his vice-presidential running mate. Lincoln’s moderate position on slavery issues and his advocacy for tariffs and internal improvements resonated particularly well in crucial states like Pennsylvania.

The political scene was fragmented, with John C. Breckinridge appealing to Southern Democrats and John Bell representing the Constitutional Union Party. Lincoln contended with Stephen Douglas in the North, while Breckinridge and Bell drew support mainly from the South.

Lincoln’s strategic use of the “Wide Awakes,” a vibrant youth group, energized voter registration efforts, positioning new and young voters as pivotal to the burgeoning Republican Party. Although Lincoln refrained from public speaking during the campaign, his party vigorously promoted his ideals and personal narrative, focusing on his modest upbringing and the ethos of “free labor.”

The Republican campaign machinery produced a wide range of materials, including a pamphlet by a Chicago Tribune writer detailing Lincoln’s life, which sold up to 200,000 copies. To manage the intense interest from an office in the Illinois state capitol, Lincoln appointed John George Nicolay as his personal secretary to handle the surge in correspondence.

On November 6, 1860, Lincoln won the presidential election, securing 1,866,452 votes — 39.8% of the total in a four-candidate race. He triumphed in the Electoral College with 180 votes, a victory achieved without any electoral votes from 10 of the 15 Southern slave states and minimal support in the Southern states overall. Lincoln’s success, driven by robust backing in the North and West, presaged the looming national upheaval that would soon manifest as the Civil War.

1861–1865: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln

Presidential Transition of Abraham Lincoln

In 1861, as Abraham Lincoln ascended to the presidency, the United States was teetering on the brink of civil war. The Southern states reacted sharply to Lincoln’s election. South Carolina led the charge by seceding from the Union on December 20, 1860. Quickly following suit were Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas by February 1, 1861. These states formed the Confederate States of America and adopted their constitution. Despite these actions, states like Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas initially resisted joining the Confederacy.

Both outgoing President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln declared secession illegal, refusing to recognize the legitimacy of the Confederacy, which had selected Jefferson Davis as its provisional president on February 9, 1861. Amidst attempts at compromise, Lincoln stood firm against the Crittenden Compromise, which sought concessions on slavery, stating his refusal to compromise on the principles that would allow him to take control of the government constitutionally.

Lincoln supported the Corwin Amendment, which would have constitutionally protected slavery in states where it already existed. He indicated his willingness to accept it as law in his first inaugural address on March 4, 1861. However, his position was clear: He did not seek to abolish slavery where it already existed but opposed its expansion.

Lincoln’s journey to his inauguration was fraught with danger due to multiple assassination threats, particularly in Baltimore. To ensure his safety, extraordinary security measures were taken, and he even altered his appearance and traveled incognito at times. Upon arriving in Washington, D.C., heavily guarded, he reassured the Southern states in his inaugural address, emphasizing that he had no intent to interfere with slavery where it existed and quoted his previous speeches as evidence.

Lincoln’s inaugural address appealed for unity, stressing that the North and South were not enemies but friends. He urged reconciliation, hoping to revive the ‘mystic chords of memory’ that connected the country. However, the Peace Conference of 1861 failed, and no compromise could prevent the impending conflict. As the nation moved towards war, Lincoln expressed in his second inaugural address that neither side desired conflict; one would make war rather than let the nation survive divided, and the other would accept war to save it.

Civil War

During Abraham Lincoln’s presidency from 1861 to 1865, the United States was deeply embroiled in the Civil War. The conflict began when Confederate forces fired upon Union-held Fort Sumter in South Carolina on April 12, 1861. President Lincoln, recognizing the urgency of the situation, responded by ordering provisions to the fort, which the Confederacy viewed as an act of aggression.

Historian Allan Nevins noted that Lincoln initially underestimated the crisis’s severity, overestimated the strength of Unionist sentiment in the South, and failed to anticipate Southern Unionist resistance to an invasion. Despite these early miscalculations, Lincoln was committed to preserving the Union without initiating violence. He adhered to his principles, even as he vowed not to surrender federal forts to the secessionists.

In the wake of the attack on Fort Sumter, Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteer troops on April 15, 1861, to defend the Union and secure its capital. This decisive action prompted states like Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas to secede, joining the Confederate States of America. However, despite solid secessionist sentiments, Maryland, Missouri, and Kentucky remained with the Union.

Challenges in maintaining federal authority also marked the early days of Lincoln’s administration. The suspension of habeas corpus, a response to the threat of Southern sympathizers, was a controversial but critical measure to ensure the safety of troop movements to Washington, D.C. This decision led to a confrontation with Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, who issued a writ challenging the suspension, which Lincoln ignored to maintain national security.

Union Military Strategy

Lincoln’s leadership during the Civil War involved control over military strategies and decisions. He was active in the government’s military response, navigating complex political, military, and social challenges. Notably, he endorsed the Confiscation Act of 1861, signaling a shift toward more stringent policies on slavery. This act, however, was just the beginning of a broader push toward emancipation, which would culminate in the Emancipation Proclamation.

Throughout the war, Lincoln was instrumental in shaping the Union’s military strategy. He engaged closely with key military figures and was deeply involved in the operational aspects of the war effort, often visiting battlefields and consulting with generals. His strategic insights were crucial in directing the Union to key victories essential for maintaining morale and the political support necessary to continue the fight.

Lincoln’s presidency was a test of his leadership in the face of a national crisis and a defining moment in determining the future of the United States. His steadfast commitment to the Union and skillful navigation of the tumultuous political landscape were critical to the North’s eventual victory in the Civil War.

General McClellan

After the Union’s defeat at Bull Run and Winfield Scott’s retirement, President Abraham Lincoln appointed Major General George B. McClellan as general-in-chief. McClellan took considerable time to plan his Virginia Peninsula Campaign, which frustrated Lincoln due to its slow progress and McClellan’s insistence that no additional troops were needed to defend Washington, D.C. McClellan attributed the campaign’s failure to Lincoln’s decision to hold forces back to protect the capital.

In 1862, Lincoln dismissed McClellan due to his prolonged inactivity and appointed Henry Halleck in July and John Pope to lead the new Army of Virginia. Pope aimed to advance Richmond from the north, aligning with Lincoln’s strategy to protect the capital. However, Pope was defeated at the Second Battle of Bull Run, compelling the Army of the Potomac to retreat to Washington for defense.

Despite previous frustrations, Lincoln reinstated McClellan to command all forces near Washington shortly before the Battle of Antietam. This battle proved pivotal as a Union victory and one of the bloodiest in American history, setting the stage for Lincoln to issue the Emancipation Proclamation. McClellan’s reluctance to pursue General Robert E. Lee’s retreating forces after Antietam and General Don Carlos Buell’s refusal to engage Confederate forces in eastern Tennessee led Lincoln to make strategic leadership changes. He replaced Buell with William Rosecrans and, after the 1862 midterm elections, replaced McClellan with Ambrose Burnside.

Burnside’s subsequent failure at Fredericksburg prompted Lincoln to appoint Joseph Hooker. The military challenges continued, with Hooker facing defeat at Chancellorsville and resigning, subsequently replaced by George Meade. Meade managed a victory at Gettysburg but did not pursue Lee’s forces aggressively post-battle, contrary to Lincoln’s directives. At the same time, General Ulysses S. Grant won by capturing Vicksburg, which secured Union control over the Mississippi River and effectively split the Confederate states. Abraham Lincoln’s biography vividly portrays these turbulent times and crucial decisions that shaped his presidency.

Emancipation Proclamation

During Abraham Lincoln’s presidency, his approach to slavery was shaped by the Constitution, which, until the 1865 amendment, left the matter to individual states. Lincoln’s strategy initially focused on preventing slavery’s expansion into new territories, anticipating that new free states would outnumber slave states and lead to slavery’s natural demise. He also attempted to negotiate compensation for emancipation with slave states.

In 1862, Congress passed an act that abolished slavery on federal territory, which Lincoln signed into law. Following this, the Confiscation Act of 1862 allowed courts to liberate enslaved people owned by those supporting the rebellion, a measure Lincoln also signed despite his reservations about its constitutionality. He believed only the commander-in-chief’s war powers granted the federal authority for such actions.

On July 22, 1862, Lincoln discussed a draft of what would become the Emancipation Proclamation with his cabinet, indicating a shift toward more direct intervention in the issue of slavery. The political landscape was deeply divided. Peace Democrats, or Copperheads, argued that pushing for emancipation hindered peace and reunification. At the same time, influential Republican editor Horace Greeley publicly urged Lincoln to commit to emancipation.

Responding to Greeley in August 1862, Lincoln articulated that his primary goal was to preserve the Union, whether or not it involved freeing enslaved people. However, by the time he wrote this, Lincoln had already decided to issue the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, signaling his intent to begin freeing enslaved people in states still in rebellion as a tactic to weaken the Confederacy and bolster the Union war effort.

On September 22, 1862, he announced that enslaved people in rebellious states would be free starting January 1, 1863, unless those states ceased their rebellion. The ensuing period saw Lincoln preparing the nation for this change, even as he sought to negotiate an end to the war that might preserve the Union alongside slavery. Nevertheless, on January 1, 1863, Lincoln issued the final Emancipation Proclamation, freeing enslaved people in rebellious areas and marking a decisive shift toward making abolition a central war aim.

This action also declared that formerly enslaved people could join the Union Army, fundamentally altering the war’s nature by transforming it into a fight for human liberation. Lincoln’s decision to recruit substantial numbers of black troops was a practical and symbolic reinforcement of the Union’s new commitment to abolition. By the end of 1863, tens of thousands of African Americans had been enlisted in the Union cause, a move Lincoln believed would decisively weaken the Confederacy.

Decisive Role in the Civil War and the Gettysburg Address

During Abraham Lincoln’s presidency, one of his most pivotal roles came during the American Civil War, particularly highlighted by his address at the dedication of the Gettysburg battlefield cemetery on November 19, 1863. Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address, delivered in just three minutes and consisting of 272 words, is famously recognized for its profound declaration that the nation was truly founded in 1776 based on the ideals of liberty and equality. He emphasized that the civil war was about upholding these values and that the Union’s dead had not died in vain, ensuring that democracy would prevail and that government “of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.”⁶

Lincoln showed decisive leadership in his military decisions, especially in his dealings with General Ulysses S. Grant. Following Grant’s successes at Shiloh and Vicksburg, and despite early criticisms, Lincoln supported him, famously stating, “I can’t spare this man. He fights.” Lincoln’s trust in Grant’s aggressive strategy led to his promotion to supreme commander, overseeing all Union armies. This move was solidified by Grant’s promotion to Lieutenant General in 1864, a rank last held by George Washington, approved swiftly by the Senate.

Grant’s relentless 1864 Overland Campaign was marked by its intensity and heavy casualties. Lincoln supported Grant’s strategic focus on depleting Confederate resources and morale by targeting crucial infrastructure. His hands-on approach was evident when he visited Grant’s headquarters at City Point, Virginia, to discuss strategies directly with Grant and General William Tec*mseh Sherman.

The war drew towards a conclusion as Lincoln engaged with Confederate leaders in the Hampton Roads Conference, though he refused to recognize the Confederacy as a legitimate government. Finally, the significant moment of the war came when Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox on April 9, 1865, effectively ending the Civil War, a result greatly shaped by Lincoln’s steadfast leadership and strategic decisions.

Reelection: 1864 United States Presidential Election

In the tumultuous year of 1864, President Abraham Lincoln sought reelection amidst the ongoing Civil War. He skillfully united key Republican factions and War Democrats like Edwin M. Stanton and Andrew Johnson under the newly formed Union Party banner. Johnson was chosen as his vice-presidential running mate to appeal to a broader electorate, including War Democrats.

During his campaign, Lincoln adeptly managed his patronage powers and political alliances to maintain support against radical factions within his party. Lincoln remained resolute despite the public’s war weariness exacerbated by the bloody stalemates in General Ulysses S. Grant’s campaigns. He prepared a confidential pledge, which he shared with his cabinet in a sealed envelope, committing to defeat the Confederacy before leaving office should he lose the election.

The Democrats, divided between the war-supporting McClellan and their peace platform, faced internal discord. The turning point came when General William T. Sherman captured Atlanta in September, significantly boosting Northern morale and dissolving widespread defeatism.

Lincoln’s adept political strategies and the Union military victories reassured the electorate. On November 8, Lincoln achieved a decisive victory, winning all but three states and receiving overwhelming support from Union soldiers.

His second inaugural address on March 4, 1865, at the nearly completed Capitol, reflected both the somber realities of war and a hopeful outlook toward reconciliation and healing. Lincoln’s profound words underscored a commitment to justice and peace, emphasizing a future of unity and compassion towards all suffering during the war, including the promise of a just peace among nations. His reflections on the divine judgment and the moral imperatives of the war marked this speech as a cornerstone of American political philosophy.

Reconstruction Era

During the critical phase of Reconstruction following the Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln sought to reunite the nation with a focus on reconciliation and rebuilding rather than retribution. After the devastation of the war, Lincoln’s approach aimed to reintegrate the Southern states into the Union swiftly and with minimal friction. He proposed the Amnesty Proclamation on December 8, 1863, which offered pardon to those who had not held significant Confederate offices or mistreated Union prisoners, contingent on their oath of allegiance to the Union.

Lincoln’s moderate stance on Reconstruction faced opposition from Democratic critics, who accused him of leveraging military power for political gains. Radical Republicans found his policies too forgiving and countered with the stringent 1864 Wade–Davis Bill. Lincoln vetoed this bill, leading to tensions as the Radicals refused to admit representatives from reconstructed Southern states like Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee.

In his judicial appointments, Lincoln sought to balance the scales by selecting Salmon P. Chase—a Radical Republican favorite for the Supreme Court—believing Chase would support his policies on emancipation and the legality of paper currency.

Further solidifying his commitment to abolishing slavery, Lincoln championed the constitutional amendment to outlaw slavery nationwide. Although initially failing to secure the necessary majority in the House of Representatives in 1864, the measure passed in January 1865 following Lincoln’s re-election, culminating in the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment on December 6, 1865.

Recognizing the limited role the federal government might play in assisting formerly enslaved people, Lincoln endorsed the Freedmen’s Bureau bill, establishing a federal agency to aid them and manage lands that could be leased and sold to them. His plans for Reconstruction also included short-term military oversight in the South, aiming for a quick restoration of state governments under Southern Unionists.

Historians debate the legacy of Lincoln’s approach to Reconstruction. Some suggest that his policies might have resembled those of his successor, Andrew Johnson, yet with potentially more effective outcomes due to his adept political skills. Others speculate that Lincoln might have evolved to support more radical reforms in response to changing circ*mstances, like many of his positions during the war.

Native Americans: Response to the Dakota War

Abraham Lincoln’s interactions with Native Americans began tragically before his birth, with their attack that killed his grandfather, witnessed by Lincoln’s father, Thomas. Lincoln’s military experience was limited to his role as a captain in the Illinois Militia during the Black Hawk War, where he saw no combat.

His presidency faced challenges in protecting Western settlers, railroads, and telegraphs from Native American attacks. He often used appointments to the Indian Bureau as political rewards for allies from Minnesota and Wisconsin. The Dakota War of 1862 was a significant conflict during his term. On August 17, 1862, violence erupted in Minnesota, leading to the deaths of hundreds of settlers, displacement of 30,000 people, and intense concern in Washington, D.C. There were unfounded fears that the conflict was part of a Confederate scheme to open a new front in the Northwest.

Lincoln responded by initially ordering the deployment of Confederate prisoners to suppress the uprising, a decision he later revoked. Instead, he appointed General John Pope to head the newly created Department of the Northwest. Early in the conflict, the Fond Du Lac band of Chippewa offered to fight against the Sioux on behalf of the U.S., hoping this would allow Minnesota troops to focus on the Civil War. Lincoln, however, declined their offer due to the uncontrollable nature of potential Chippewa warfare, which traditionally involved no prisoners of war and considered non-combatants as legitimate targets.

During the conflict, Minnesota’s Governor appointed Congressman Henry H. Sibley as a Colonel of Volunteers to lead the U.S. forces. Sibley’s forces eventually defeated Chief Little Crow at the Battle of Wood Lake. Following the surrender of the Mdewakanton Sioux at Camp Release, a military commission was established to try the captured warriors, leading to 303 initial death sentences. Lincoln insisted on reviewing these cases personally in Washington. After reviewing the trial transcripts, he distinguished between acts of war and acts of atrocities against civilians, commuting the sentences of 263 men and confirming the execution of 38, marking the largest mass execution in U.S. history.

This decision reflected Lincoln’s broader approach to governance during the Civil War—aimed at reconciliation and unity rather than punishment. Later, the principles of fairness and command responsibility in wartime were further codified under the Lieber Code, which Lincoln issued to regulate Union military conduct. Lincoln’s nuanced approach to these complex issues underscored his focus on healing and rebuilding the nation, despite the political pressures exemplified by Minnesota Congressman Alexander Ramsey’s remark that more executions would have garnered more electoral support. Lincoln famously responded, “I could not afford to hang men for votes,” demonstrating his moral stance over political expediency.

Whig Theory of a Presidency

Abraham Lincoln’s presidency was guided by the Whig theory, which focuses on executing laws and deferring to Congress for legislative action. During his term, Lincoln vetoed only four bills, notably the Wade-Davis Bill, due to its severe terms for Reconstruction. The 1862 Homestead Act was significant for offering vast government land in the West at low prices, and the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act, which funded agricultural colleges, was a key legislative achievement. Furthermore, the Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 facilitated building the United States’ first transcontinental railroad, completed in 1869.

Lincoln’s cabinet was carefully chosen, incorporating strong figures from his own and opposing parties, enhancing his administration’s effectiveness. He faced significant financial challenges, implementing tariffs and introducing the United States to its first income tax through the Revenue Act of 1861, setting a flat tax rate of 3 percent on incomes over $800. The 1862 Revenue Act adjusted these rates to be progressively higher. The Lincoln administration also expanded federal economic influence, establishing a national banking system and introducing greenback paper currency. The Department of Agriculture was founded in 1862 to support the nation’s farming needs.

The Lincoln Cabinet

Lincoln took decisive action against misinformation during his presidency. When the New York World and the Journal of Commerce published false draft proclamations to manipulate the gold market, Lincoln temporarily seized control of these papers.

In 1863, he established Thanksgiving as a national holiday, setting it on the final Thursday of November, a tradition that continues today. Additionally, in 1864, he signed the Yosemite Grant, protecting the Yosemite Valley and paving the way for the national park system.

Supreme Court Appointments

During his presidency, Abraham Lincoln approached Supreme Court nominations with a strategy reflecting his broader political philosophy. He famously said, “We cannot ask a man what he will do, and if we should, and he should answer us, we should despise him for it. Therefore, we must take a man whose opinions are known.” Lincoln’s selections for the court were based on their known stances and merits rather than assurances about future rulings.

Lincoln appointed five justices to the Supreme Court. Noah Haynes Swayne, an anti-slavery lawyer, was known for his commitment to the Union. Samuel Freeman Miller supported Lincoln in the 1860 election and was a staunch abolitionist. David Davis, Lincoln’s campaign manager during the 1860 election and a judge from Illinois, was chosen for his legal acumen and loyalty. Stephen Johnson Field, previously a justice on the California Supreme Court, was selected for his geographic and political significance, providing balance to the court. Lastly, Salmon P. Chase, Lincoln’s Treasury Secretary and a skilled jurist known for his support of Reconstruction, was appointed as Chief Justice, a move that also aimed to solidify unity within the Republican Party.

Foreign Policy

Abraham Lincoln appointed William H. Seward, his major political opponent, as Secretary of State, entrusting him with the bulk of diplomatic responsibilities. Lincoln’s approach to foreign policy involved selecting key diplomats as part of his broader patronage strategy, ensuring his administration was well-represented abroad. One significant incident during his presidency was the Trent Affair in late 1861. Lincoln closely monitored this situation as it threatened to escalate into a conflict with Britain. Seward played a crucial role in preventing Britain and France from recognizing or supporting the Confederacy. He effectively communicated that any support for the South would lead the Union to declare war on these European powers.

Assassination

Abraham Lincoln, the 16th President of the United States, was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a known actor and Confederate sympathizer. Booth had planned the assassination after attending Lincoln’s speech on April 11, 1865, where Lincoln expressed his support for granting voting rights to educated and military-serving black men. On the evening of April 14, 1865, Lincoln and his wife attended the play Our American Cousin at Ford’s Theatre. General Grant, who was also supposed to attend, changed his plans to visit his children in New Jersey at the last minute.

During the play, at approximately 10:15 PM, Booth entered Lincoln’s private box at the theatre and shot him in the back of the head. Major Henry Rathbone, who was present in the box, struggled with Booth but was stabbed and overpowered. Booth fled the scene. Lincoln was immediately attended to by doctors and was moved to the Petersen House across the street, where he remained in a coma for eight hours. He passed away at 7:22 AM on April 15, 1865. After Lincoln’s death, Secretary of War Edwin Stanton famously said, “Now he belongs to the ages.”

Lincoln’s body was placed in a flag-draped coffin and transported back to the White House under military escort. Vice President Andrew Johnson was sworn in as President later that day.

Booth was on the run for two weeks until he was found hiding in a Virginia farm. He was shot and killed by Sergeant Boston Corbett during the attempt to capture him alive, as ordered by Secretary Stanton. Initially detained, Corbett was later released and declared a patriot by Stanton.

Funeral

Lincoln’s funeral included his body lying in state in the White House and the Capitol Rotunda from April 19 to 21. His remains, along with those of his son Willie, were then transported to Springfield, Illinois, via a funeral train that made numerous stops, allowing scores of mourners to pay their respects. The nation mourned deeply, with spontaneous memorials and expressions of grief marking the train’s route. Lincoln was finally laid to rest in Oak Ridge Cemetery in Springfield, inside what is now known as the Lincoln Tomb. His death was met with widespread sorrow and marked the somber end to a tumultuous period in American history, although some detractors of Lincoln reacted to his death with relief or joy.

Final Reflections

Lincoln’s image evolved, transcending national boundaries to symbolize freedom and national unity. Despite criticism from some quarters, his global reverence is undeniable, with leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and Karl Marx admiring his contributions. In conclusion, Abraham Lincoln’s biography highlights the lasting impact of his leadership and vision. His life story, marked by resilience and a commitment to equality, inspires generations. Lincoln’s legacy as the Great Emancipator and a unifying force during the Civil War underscores his key role in shaping American history.

Reference List for Abraham Lincoln’s Biography

1. Blumenthal, Sidney. A Self-Made Man: The Political Life of Abraham Lincoln, 1809-1849. Simon & Schuster, 2016, p. 29. ↩︎
2. Shenk, Joshua Wolf. “Lincoln’s Great Depression.” The Atlantic, The Atlantic Monthly Group, Oct. 2005. ↩︎
3. Donald, David Herbert. Lincoln. Simon and Schuster, 1996, pp. 53–55. ↩︎
4. Lincoln, Abraham. Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln. Vol. 1, 18 Nov. 2001, p. 109. ↩︎
5. Oates, Stephen B. “Abraham Lincoln 1861–1865.” Responses of the Presidents to Charges of Misconduct, edited by Comer Vann Woodward, Dell Publishing, 1974. ↩︎
6. Wills, Garry. Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words that Remade America. Simon and Schuster, 2012, pp. 20, 27, 105, 146. ↩︎

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